The Higher Education Policy Institute has published the results of
its eighth annual Soft-Power Index. The Index measures the number
of senior serving world leaders – defined as monarchs, presidents
and prime ministers – educated at a higher level in countries other
than their own. This year's results show: 70 serving world leaders
received higher education in the US; and 58 serving world leaders
received higher education in the UK. When the Index began
in...Request free trial
The Higher Education Policy Institute has published the results
of its eighth annual Soft-Power Index.
The Index measures the number of senior serving world
leaders – defined as monarchs, presidents and prime ministers –
educated at a higher level in countries other than their own.
This year's results show:
- 70 serving world leaders received higher education in the US;
and
- 58 serving world leaders received higher education in the UK.
When the Index began in 2017, institutions in the UK had
educated one more world leader than those in the US.
But in the period since, the US has overtaken the UK and has
built up a commanding lead. This year, the US has pulled further
away.
In fact, there has been the biggest one-year increase in the
number of senior world leaders educated in the US (+5) alongside
no change in the number educated in the UK. So the gap between
these two countries is now the largest it has ever been since the
Index began.
- The US first overtook the UK in 2018, when there was one more
world leader educated in the US than the UK.
- The US then extended its lead in each of the four subsequent
years: in 2019 three more world leaders had been educated in the
US than the UK, in 2020 this figure rose to five, then to seven
in 2021 and then to 11 in 2022.
- The gap shrunk somewhat last year, meaning that in 2023 seven
more world leaders were educated in the US than in the UK. But
this year, the gap has grown bigger than ever and now stands at
12.
There are 195 countries included in the study. Given any one
country can have more than one very senior leader educated
abroad, the 70 very senior leaders educated in the US lead 58
different countries while the 58 very senior leaders educated in
the UK lead 52 different countries. (There is some overlap, as a
small handful of leaders have received education at a higher
level in both the UK and the US.)
Over the entire period since 2017, 77 (39%) countries in
the world have had at least one very senior leader educated at a
higher level in the UK.
In 2024, both the US and the UK are far ahead of every other
country, benefiting from their strong university systems and
their international connections as well as having English as the
most common language.
- France remains in third place, having educated 28 leaders (-2
on 2023). This is France's worst performance since the
Soft-Power Index began in 2017 but the country remains
comfortably ahead of Russia in fourth place (on 10, the same as
last year).
- Australia, Belgium and Spain tie for fifth place, having
educated seven world leaders apiece.
- Germany, Italy, Switzerland have educated six world leaders
each, while the Netherlands has educated five.
The research for this project was conducted in August, as in past
years, so any very recent change in leadership will not be
captured.
World leaders educated in countries other than their own
|
|
2017
|
2018
|
2019
|
2020
|
2021
|
2022
|
2023
|
2024
|
|
US
|
57
|
58 (+1)
|
62 (+4)
|
61 (-1)
|
65 (+4)
|
67 (+2)
|
65 (-2)
|
70 (+5)
|
|
UK
|
58
|
57 (-1)
|
59 (+2)
|
56 (-3)
|
58 (+2)
|
56 (-1)
|
58 (+2)
|
58 (--)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
UK/US gap
|
-1
|
+1
|
+3
|
+5
|
+7
|
+11
|
+7
|
+12
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
France
|
34
|
40 (+6)
|
40 (--)
|
35 (-5)
|
30 (-5)
|
31 (+1)
|
30 (-1)
|
28 (-2)
|
|
Russia
|
9
|
10 (+1)
|
10 (--)
|
10 (--)
|
11 (+1)
|
11 (--)
|
10 (-1)
|
10 (--)
|
The annual Soft-Power Index has become an influential
resource since it first began. It is regularly quoted by UK
policymakers and in official documents as well as receiving media
coverage around the world and being widely used by official
bodies in other countries – for example by Campus France, which
promotes international student mobility.
The Index only counts leaders educated outside their own
home country. For instance, King Charles III and Sir , who took their degrees in the
UK, do not appear in the UK's numbers.
The number of world leaders educated in other countries is a
useful proxy for the amount of soft power held by different
countries. However, the Soft-Power Index is only one
measure and it should be supplemented with other information when
trying to determine which countries have been most successful at
welcoming international students at any point in time.
, the Director of HEPI,
said:
‘As a firm believer in the benefits of studying abroad, I am
sorry to see the UK's relative position slip – and for the sixth
time since we began calculating the numbers seven years ago. What
could once have been excused as a blip is now a very clear trend.
‘International students bring all sorts of financial, educational
and social benefits to the UK but the constant flux in policy,
such as the tighter rules introduced in January 2024, has
confused people about whether the UK is truly welcoming. So we
cannot assume that we will recover the ground we have lost
relative to the US.
‘I hope the new UK Government, which immediately adopted much
more positive rhetoric on international students, will bear
HEPI's Soft-Power Index in mind as they continue
evaluating whether the current student migration rules and high
visa costs are fit for purpose.'
The table below shows all the countries that have had a leader
educated in the UK tertiary system since 2017.
Changes affecting the UK list for 2024 include:
- The addition of Hun Manet, who has been the Prime Minister of
Cambodia since late 2023. He completed a PhD at the University of
Bristol in 2009 on What determines the firm size distribution
and structural integration? A cross-county study. He also
studied in the US.
- The removal of Queen Margrethe II of Denmark, who abdicated
in early 2024. As she studied at both Girton College, Cambridge,
and the London School of Economics (LSE) in the 1960s, she
previously appeared in the total for the UK.
- The addition of Sylvania Burton, the first female President
of Dominica (since late 2023). She studied as a postgraduate at
the University of Manchester in the 1990s. As her predecessor,
Charles Savarin, studied in the UK too, the number for Dominica
does not change.
- The addition of Alexander Stubb, who was elected as the new
President of Finland in early 2024 and who studied at the LSE in
the late 1990s.
- The addition of Halla Tómasdóttir, who was recently elected
as President of Iceland and who studied at Cranfield in the
2000s. As her predecessor, Guðni Th. Jóhannesson studied at both
the University of Oxford and Queen Mary, University of London,
the number for Iceland does not alter.
- The removal of Sheikh Nawaf Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, who
was the Emir of Kuwait until his death in 2023, and who was
believed to have had some higher level education in the UK.
- The addition of the new Prime Minister of Luxembourg, Luc
Frieden, who studied Law at Queen's College, Cambridge, in the
1980s. He also studied in France and the US. This raises the
number for Luxembourg from one to two because Grand Duke Henri
studied at Sandhurst.
- The removal of Abdullah of Pahang, who had studied at various
UK institutions, and whose term as sixteenth Yang di-Pertuan
Agong (King of Malaysia) ended in January 2024.
- The addition of Mohamed Muizzu, who was awarded a PhD in
Civil Engineering in 2009 at the University of Leeds and who was
elected President of the Maldives in 2023, taking office in
November of that year.
- The removal of George Vella, who studied Aviation Medicine in
the UK, and whose period as President of Malta came to an end in
April 2024.
- The removal of Hage Geingob, the former President of Namibia
who had studied at the University of Leeds in the 2000s, who died
in office in February 2024.
- The addition of Zardari, the President of
Pakistan since March 2024 (but see below).
- The removal of Mohammad Shtayyeh, who was the Prime Minister
of Palestine until March 2024, who studied at the University of
Sussex in the 1980s.
- The removal of Ana Brnabić, who served as Prime Minister of
Serbia until February 2024 and who studied at the University of
Hull at the turn of the millennium. She is now the President of
the National Assembly of Serbia but this post does not count in
the Soft-Power Index as we only include monarchs,
presidents and prime ministers.
- The removal of Lee Hsien Loong, who studied at Trinity
College, Cambridge, in the 1970s, who stood down as Prime
Minister of Singapore in May 2024. While he is now the country's
‘Senior Minister', this post does not count towards the
Index. As the new President of Singapore since September
2023, Tharman Shanmugaratnam, studied at the LSE and also Wolfson
College, Cambridge a quarter of a century ago, the number for
Singapore does not change.
- The addition, for the first time, of Slovakia as the
country's Prime Minister since October 2023, Robert Fico, studied
East European Studies at University College London (UCL) in the
1990s.
- The addition of Jeremiah Manele, the Prime Minister of the
Solomon Islands since May 2024, who was a postgraduate student at
the University of Oxford in the mid-1990s.
|
List of countries with at least one senior
leader educated in the UK, with the name(s) of the
relevant serving leader(s), 2017-2023
|
|
Countries in green are where there has been a change
since 2023
Countries in grey have been led by someone educated
in the UK since 2017 but were not in August 2024
|
|
|
2017
|
2018
|
2019
|
2020
|
2021
|
2022
|
2023
|
2024
|
|
1. Antigua and Barbuda (Gaston Browne)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Armenia
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
Australia
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
2. and3. Bahrain (Sheikh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa &
Prince Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa)
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
|
4. Barbados (Mia Mottley)
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
5. Belgium (King Philippe)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
6. Bhutan (Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Bosnia and Herzegovina
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
7. Bolivia (Luis Arce)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Botswana
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
8. Brunei (Hassanal Bolkiah)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Burma
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
*NEW ENTRY* 9. Cambodia (Hun Manet)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
|
10. Cameroon (Joseph Ngute)
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Columbia
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
Costa Rica
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
11. Cyprus (Nicos Anastasiades)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
12. Czechia (Petr Pavel)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
|
*DEPARTURE* Denmark
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
|
*CHANGE* 13. Dominica (now Sylvanie Burton)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
14. East Timor (José Ramos-Horta)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
15. Egypt (Abdel Fattah el-Sisi)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
16. Fiji (Sitiveni Rabuka)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
|
*CHANGE* 17. Finland (now Alexander Stubb)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
|
18. The Gambia (Adama Barrow)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
19. Ghana (Nana Akufo-Addo)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
20. Guyana (Mark Phillips)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
21. Hungary (Viktor Orbán)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
*CHANGE* 22. Iceland (now Halla Tómasdóttir)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Iran
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
23. Iraq (Abdul Latif Rashid)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
24. Ireland (Michael D Higgins)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Italy
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
25. Japan (Emperor Naruhito)
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
26. and 27. Jordan (King Abdullah II & Bisher
Al-Khasawneh)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
|
*DEPARTURE* Kuwait
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
|
Lebanon
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
28. Lesotho (King Letsie III)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
29. Liechtenstein (Hereditary Prince Alois)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
30. and 31. *ADDITIONAL ENTRY* Luxembourg (Grand Duke
Henri and Luc Frieden)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
2
|
|
Malawi
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
*DEPARTURE* Malaysia
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
|
*NEW ENTRY* 32. The Maldives (Mohamed Muizzu)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
|
*DEPARTURE* Malta
|
1
|
1
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
|
33. and 34. Mauritius (Prithvirajsing Roopun &
Pravind Jugnauth)
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
|
35. Monaco (Prince Albert II)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
36. Montenegro (Jakov Milatović)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
|
37. Mozambique (Filipe Nyusi)
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
*DEPARTURE* Namibia
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
|
Nepal
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
|
Nigeria
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
|
38. Norway (King Harald V)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
39. Oman (Haitham bin Tariq)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
*RE-ENTRY* 40. Pakistan ( Zardari)
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
|
*DEPARTURE* Palestine
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
|
Peru
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
41. Philippines (Bongbong Marcos)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
42. Qatar (Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani)
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
43. Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (Ralph Gonsalves)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
*DEPARTURE* Serbia
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
|
44. Seychelles (Wavel Ramkalawan)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
45. Sierra Leone (Julius Maada Bio)
|
0
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
*CHANGE* 46. Singapore (now Tharman Shanmugaratnam)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
*NEW ENTRY* 47. Slovakia (Robert Fico)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
|
48. Slovenia (Nataša Pirc Musar)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
|
*NEW ENTRY* 49. Solomon Islands (Jeremiah Manele)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
|
Somalia
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
Sudan
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
50. Switzerland (Karin Keller-Sutter)
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
51. Syria (Bashar al-Assad)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
52. Tanzania (Samia Suluhu Hassan)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
53. and 54. Tonga (King Tupou VI and Siaosi Sovaleni)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
|
Tuvalu
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
55. and 56. United Arab Emirates (Mohamed bin Zayed Al
Nahyan & Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum)
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
|
57. Vanuatu (Nikenike Vurobaravu)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Yemen
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
58. Zambia (Hakainde Hichilema)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
TOTAL
|
58
|
57
|
59
|
56
|
58
|
56
|
58
|
58
|
The 70 world leaders from 58 countries educated in the United
States head the following countries:
Bahrain (2); Belgium (2); Belize; Bhutan (2); Botswana; Bulgaria;
Cambodia; Costa Rica; Denmark; Dominica; Dominican Republic; East
Timor; Egypt (2); Finland; Georgia; Greece; Guinea-Bissau;
Guyana; Haiti; Iceland (2); Ireland; Israel (2); Ivory Coast;
Jordan (2); Kuwait; Latvia; Lebanon; Liberia; Luxembourg; Malawi;
Malaysia; Marshall Islands; Micronesia; Moldova (2); Monaco;
Mongolia; Montenegro; Namibia (2); Nigeria; Palau; Palestine;
Panama; Paraguay; Philippines; Rwanda; Saint Kitts and Nevis;
Sierra Leone (2); Singapore (2); Slovenia; Somalia; South Korea;
Spain; Sri Lanka; Switzerland; Tanzania; Thailand; Togo (2); and
Tonga.
Compiling the Index is a much harder job than it might
sound because there are not always clear information sources
available. Among the specific challenges we faced this year are
the following:
- The new Emir of Kuwait, Mishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah,
studied at Hendon Police College in the 1960s – we have excluded
this as we believe it was unlikely to count as higher education
but others might disagree with this and we would be open to new
information on it.
- The President of Pakistan, Zardari, is said to have
studied at the London School of Economics and Business but it
is not entirely clear which institution he claims to have
studied at – we have nonetheless included him in the UK total.
Notes for Editors
- World leaders are defined as heads
of state and heads of government (such as monarchs, presidents
and prime ministers). Countries typically have more than one very
senior leader, such as a president or a monarch plus a prime
minister.
- Countries are included if they are
members of, or observers at, the United Nations, currently
numbering 195 places. This means, for example, that Palestine is
included but Northern Cyprus is excluded even though the
President of Norther Cyprus, Ersin Tatar, studied at Jesus
College, Cambridge in the 1980s.
- The Soft-Power Index is a
measure of tertiary education only. In general, this is defined
broadly, but distance learning and transnational education are
excluded on the grounds that the soft-power benefits – but not
the educational benefits – are considered to be lower.
- Leaders change throughout the year,
so we provide a snapshot for August 2024. For example, the
fieldwork was undertaken prior to the recent Sri Lankan
presidential election, which was held on 21 September 2024 and
led to a change.
- Each country is treated equally and
we do not claim each individual result provides good evidence of
positive soft power. No one is excluded on moral
grounds.
- Some people are educated in more
than one other country and they can therefore count towards the
totals for more than one country.
- While we use multiple sources to
obtain information, the educational background of some national
leaders is opaque. HEPI particularly welcomes any feedback that
would enable us to build up a more complete picture. When new
information comes to light, we update the figures.
- King Charles III is the head of
state for 14 Commonwealth countries other than the UK and,
arguably, all 14 could therefore be included in the total for the
UK. Were this to occur, it would put the UK in first place.
However, King Charles's higher education was delivered in the UK
(at the University of Cambridge), the country where he was born
and lives, and he is head of state of other countries in part by
virtue of his position in the United Kingdom. So we have opted to
exclude this information. This matches how we have always treated
the President of France, Emmanuel Macron, who is one of the heads
of state (Co-Prince) of Andorra.
- The University of the West Indies
(UWI) serves 18 English-speaking countries and territories in the
Caribbean: Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados,
Belize, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands,
Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Montserrat, Saint Kitts and
Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad
and Tobago and Turks and Caicos Islands. Attempting to unpick the
place of study for those world leaders who studied at the UWI is
beyond the scope of this study. Therefore, we have assumed that
each one studied in their home nation. This is the same practice
as was followed in earlier years.
- HEPI's other work on international
students, much of which has been undertaken with other
organisations, can be found on the
HEPI website. In recent months, this this work included
research on the Graduate
Route visa and the net economic
contribution of international students using the new
parliamentary constituency boundaries. Earlier editions of
the Soft-Power Index remain available to see (at no
cost) on the HEPI website.
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