The Higher Education Policy Institute (www.hepi.ac.uk) has
published the results of its seventh annual Soft-Power
Index.
The Index measures the number of serving world
leaders (monarchs, presidents and prime ministers) educated at a
higher level in countries other than their own.
- In the first year of the Index (2017),
there were more world leaders who had been educated in the UK
tertiary sector than in any other country, including the US. But
the US overtook the UK in 2018 and extended its lead in each of
the four subsequent years – in 2019, 2020, 2021 and 2022.
- The new results for 2023 show, in contrast, that the gap
between the number of current world leaders educated in the US
and the UK has shrunk for the first time since
the Index began: compared to 2022, there are
two more countries with a leader educated in the UK and two fewer
countries with a leader educated in the US, reducing the gap by
four.
- However, there are still seven more world leaders educated in
the US (65), including the UK’s Prime Minister, , than in the UK (58). Over
the years, the gap has shifted from -1 in 2017, to +1 in 2018,
+3 in 2019, +5 in 2020, +7 in 2021 and +11 in 2022 but is now
back down to +7 in 2023.
- There are 195 countries in the world and around one-quarter
of them (54 or 28%) have a very senior leader who was educated in
the US while a similar number (53 or 27%) have a very senior
leader who was educated in the UK. As there is some overlap, with
a handful of leaders being educated in both the UK and the US,
the total number of countries with a very senior leader who has
been educated at a higher level in the US and / or the UK is
84 (43% of the world’s countries).
Both the US and the UK are far ahead of every other country,
benefiting from their strong university systems and their
international connections as well as having English as the most
common language.
France remains in third place, having educated 30 leaders in post
in the summer of 2023, down one on 2022, and considerably ahead
of Russia in fourth place (on 10, also down 1 since 2022).
World leaders educated in countries other than their own
|
|
2017
|
2018
|
2019
|
2020
|
2021
|
2022
|
2023
|
|
US
|
57
|
58 (+1)
|
62 (+4)
|
61 (-1)
|
65 (+4)
|
67 (+2)
|
65 (-2)
|
|
UK
|
58
|
57 (-1)
|
59 (+2)
|
56 (-3)
|
58 (+2)
|
56 (-1)
|
58 (+2)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
UK/US gap
|
-1
|
+1
|
+3
|
+5
|
+7
|
+11
|
+7
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
France
|
34
|
40 (+6)
|
40 (+/-0)
|
35 (-5)
|
30 (-5)
|
31 (+1)
|
30 (-1)
|
|
Russia
|
9
|
10 (+1)
|
10 (+/-0)
|
10 (+/-0)
|
11 (+1)
|
11 (+/-0)
|
10 (-1)
|
The only other countries that have educated more than five
serving world leaders are Switzerland (7), Australia (6), Italy
(6) and Spain (6).
The annual Soft-Power Index has become an
influential resource since it first began and previous iterations
have been regularly quoted by Government Ministers and in
official documents – for example:
- The Government’s International
Education Strategy notes: ‘The Higher Education
Policy Institute estimates that over 50 serving world leaders
have benefited from a British education.’
- The Secretary of State for Education, the , recently referred to
the results of the Index in the House of
Commons, on 12 June 2023.
We only count leaders educated outside their own home country. So
the fact the UK has recently had a change both to its head of
state, from Queen Elizabeth II to King Charles III, and its Prime
Minister, from via to , does not have an impact on
the UK’s numbers. However, the US’s total is bolstered by the
fact that took an MBA at Stanford
University as a Fulbright Scholar.
In part, the Index reflects past trends, given
the gap in time that usually exists between someone’s formal
education and reaching a top position in their home country.
, the Director of HEPI,
said:
‘The number of world leaders educated in other countries reflects
the standing of different educational systems and is a good proxy
for the amount of soft power held by different countries. It is a
phenomenal achievement that over one-quarter of the countries in
the world have a very senior leader – a head of state or prime
minister – educated in the UK.
‘It is no accident that the countries that top the global
university league tables are the same ones that educate the most
people who go on to head up their own countries. We now have
seven years of data, which confirm beyond all doubt that the US
and the UK have a lead over the rest of the world that remains
very difficult to beat.
‘When we published the results last year, we noted there was a
more propitious environment for international students in the UK
due to recent policy changes but the dial has since been turned
back somewhat. Recent rhetoric from the Home Office and incoming
tougher rules on student dependants mean many UK institutions
will have to fight harder to maintain their attractiveness to
those outside the country.’
The chart below shows all the countries that have had a very
senior leader educated in the UK tertiary system since 2017.
List of countries with at least one senior leader
educated in the UK, with the name(s) of the relevant serving
leader(s), 2017-2023
Countries in orange are led by someone educated in
the UK
Countries in green are led by someone educated in
the UK but were not in 2022
Countries in blue were led by someone educated in
the UK in 2022 but are no longer
Countries in grey have been led by someone educated
in the UK since 2017 but not recently
|
|
2017
|
2018
|
2019
|
2020
|
2021
|
2022
|
2023
|
|
1. Antigua and Barbuda (Gaston Browne)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Armenia
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
|
Australia
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
2. Bahrain (Sheikh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa & Prince
Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa)
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
|
3. Barbados (Mia Mottley)
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
4. Belgium (King Philippe)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
5. Bhutan (Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Bosnia and Herzegovina
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
6. Bolivia (Luis Arce)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Botswana
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
7. Brunei (Hassanal Bolkiah)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Burma
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
8. Cameroon (Joseph Ngute)
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Columbia
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
Costa Rica
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
|
9. Cyprus (Nicos Anastasiades)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
10. Czechia (Petr Pavel)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
|
11. Denmark (Queen Margrethe II)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
12. Dominica (Charles Savarin)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
13. East Timor (José Ramos-Horta)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
|
14. Egypt (Abdel Fattah el-Sisi)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
15. Fiji (Sitiveni Rabuka)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
|
16. The Gambia (Adama Barrow)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
17. Ghana (Nana Akufo-Addo)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
18. Guyana (Mark Phillips)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
19. Hungary (Viktor Orbán)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
20. Iceland (Guðni Th. Jóhannesson)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Iran
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
21. Iraq (Abdul Latif Rashid)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
22. Ireland (Michael D Higgins)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Italy
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
23. Japan (Emperor Naruhito)
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
24. Jordan (King Abdullah II & Bisher Al-Khasawneh)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
|
25. Kuwait (Sheikh Nawaf Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Lebanon
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
|
26. Lesotho (King Letsie III)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
27. Liechtenstein (Hereditary Prince Alois)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
28. Luxembourg (Grand Duke Henri)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Malawi
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
29. Malaysia (Abdullah of Pahang)
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
30. Malta (George Vella)
|
1
|
1
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
31. Mauritius (Prithvirajsing Roopun & Pravind
Jugnauth)
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
|
32. Monaco (Prince Albert II)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
33. Montenegro (Jakov Milatović)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
|
34. Mozambique (Filipe Nyusi)
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
|
35. Namibia (Hage Geingob)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Nepal
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
|
Nigeria
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
|
36. Norway (King Harald V)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
37. Oman (Haitham bin Tariq)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Pakistan
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
|
38. Palestine (Mohammad Shtayyeh)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Peru
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
39. Philippines (Bongbong Marcos)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
|
40. Qatar (Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani)
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
41. Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (Ralph Gonsalves)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
42. Serbia (Ana Brnabić)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
43. Seychelles (Wavel Ramkalawan)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
44. Sierra Leone (Julius Maada Bio)
|
0
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
45. Singapore (Lee Hsien Loong)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
46. Slovenia
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
|
Somalia
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
Sudan
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
|
47. Switzerland (Karin Keller-Sutter)
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
48. Syria (Bashar al-Assad)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
49. Tanzania (Samia Suluhu Hassan)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
50. Tonga (King Tupou VI and Siaosi Sovaleni)
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
2
|
2
|
|
Tuvalu
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
51. United Arab Emirates (Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan
& Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum)
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
|
52. Vanuatu (Nikenike Vurobaravu)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
|
Yemen
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
|
53. Zambia (Hakainde Hichilema)
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
|
TOTAL
|
58
|
57
|
59
|
56
|
58
|
56
|
58
|
The 65 world leaders from 54 countries educated in the United
States in the summer of 2023 head the following countries:
- Bahrain (2: Sheikh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa & Prince
Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa)
- Belgium (2: King Philippe & Alexander De Croo)
- Belize (1: Juan Briceño)
- Bhutan (2: King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck & Lotay
Tshering)
- Botswana (1: Mokgweetsi Masisi)
- Bulgaria (1: Rumen Radev)
- Costa Rica (1: Rodrigo Chaves Robles)
- Dominica (1: Roosevelt Skerrit)
- Dominican Republic (1: Luis Abinader)
- East Timor (1: José Ramos-Horta)
- Egypt (1: Abdel Fattah el-Sisi)
- Eswatini (1: Cleopas Dlamini)
- Georgia (1: Salome Zourabichvili)
- Greece (1: Kyriakos Mitsotakis)
- Guinea-Bissau (1: Nuno Gomes Nabiam)
- Guyana (1: Mark Phillips)
- Haiti (1: Ariel Henry)
- Ireland (1: Michael D. Higgins)
- Israel (2: Isaac Herzog & Benjamin Netanyahu)
- Ivory Coast (2: Alassane Ouattara & Patrick Achi)
- Jordan (2: Abdullah II & Bisher Al-Khasawneh)
- Latvia (2: Edgars Rinkēvičs & Arturs Krišjānis Kariņš)
- Lebanon (1: Najib Mikati)
- Liberia (1: George Weah)
- Malawi (1: Lazarus Chakwera)
- Marshall Islands (1: David Kabua)
- Micronesia (1: Wesley Simina)
- Moldova (2: Maia Sandu & Dorin Recean)
- Monaco (1: Albert II)
- Mongolia (1: Luvsannamsrain Oyun-Erdene)
- Montenegro (1: Jakov Milatović)
- Namibia (2: Hage Geingob & Saara Kuugongelwa)
- Nigeria (1: Bola Tinubu)
- Pakistan (1: Arif Alvi)
- Palau (1: Surangel Whipps Jr.)
- Panama (1: Laurentino Cortizo)
- Paraguay (1: Mario Abdo Benítez)
- Philippines (1: Bongbong Marcos)
- Poland (1: Mateusz Morawiecki)
- Rwanda (1: Paul Kagame)
- Saint Kitts and Nevis (1: Terrance Drew)
- Serbia (1: Ana Brnabić)
- Sierra Leone (2: Julius Maada Bio & David Moinina Sengeh)
- Singapore (1: Lee Hsien Loong)
- Slovenia (1: Robert Golob)
- Somalia (1: Hassan Sheikh Mohamud)
- South Korea (1: Hassan Sheikh Mohamud
- Spain (1: King Felipe VI)
- Sri Lanka (1: Dinesh Gunawardena)
- Switzerland (1: Albert Rösti)
- Tanzania (1: Samia Suluhu Hassan)
- Togo (2: Faure Gnassingbé & Victoire Tomegah Dogbé)
- Tonga (1: King Tupou VI)
- United Kingdom (1: )
Notes for Editors
- World leaders are defined as heads of state and heads of
government (such as monarchs, presidents and prime ministers).
Countries typically have more than one leader, such as a
president or monarch plus a prime minister.
- Countries are included if they are members of, or observers
at, the United Nations, currently numbering 195 places. This
means, for example, that Palestine is included but Northern
Cyprus is excluded.
- The Soft-Power Index is a measure of
tertiary education only. In general, this is defined broadly, but
distance learning and transnational education are excluded on the
grounds that the soft-power benefits – but not the educational
benefits – are considered to be lower.
- Leaders change throughout the year, so we provide a snapshot
for the start of August 2023. Each country is treated equally and
we do not claim each individual result provides good evidence
of positive soft power: no one is excluded on
moral grounds.
- Some people are educated in more than one other country and
they can therefore count towards the totals for more than one
country.
- The educational background of some national leaders is
opaque. For example, there are seven leaders for whom we have
been unable to find out any information about their higher
education, though it is likely many of them did not obtain any
higher education. HEPI particularly welcomes any feedback
that would enable us to build up a more complete picture.
- When new information comes to light, we update the figures
for past years: for example, as a result of new (though still
incomplete) information on the Emir of Kuwait’s education, the UK
totals for 2021 and 2022 have risen by one apiece and as a result
of new information coming to light on the Prime Minister of Mali,
the 2021 and 2022 totals for Russia have also risen by one.
- King Charles III is the head of state for 14 Commonwealth
countries other than the UK and, arguably, all 14 could therefore
be included in the total for the UK. Were this to occur, it would
put the UK comfortably in first place. However, King Charles’s
higher education was delivered in the UK (at the University of
Cambridge), the country where he was born and lives, and he is
head of state of other countries in part by virtue of his
position in the United Kingdom. So we have opted to exclude this
information. This matches how we have always treated the
President of France, Emmanuel Macron, who is one of the heads of
state (Co-Prince) of Andorra.
- HEPI’s other work on international students, much of which
has been undertaken with other organisations – including Kaplan
International Pathways, London Economics and the Universities UK
International Unit – can be found on the HEPI website. In 2022/23,
this work included a Policy Note on how employers
regard the Graduate Route
visa and a detailed new
assessment of the net economic contribution of
international students by parliamentary constituency.
- HEPI was established in 2002 to influence the higher
education debate with evidence. We are UK-wide, independent and
non-partisan. We are funded by organisations and higher education
institutions that wish to support vibrant policy discussions, as
well as through our own events. HEPI is a company limited by
guarantee and a registered charity. Earlier iterations of
the Soft-Power Index remain available to
consult on the HEPI website.
